Chemical element · reference page

82Pb

Lead

Lead is element 82 (Pb), located in period 6, group 14 and the p block. At room temperature its reference phase is solid. Its electron configuration is [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2.

Atomic number82

Standard atomic weight[206.14, 207.94]

Group14

Period6

Blockp

Electron configuration[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2

Electronic structure

What controls its chemistry

Group 14 elements have four valence electrons. That makes covalent bonding especially important for the lighter members, while metallic character increases down the group.

For lead, the electron configuration [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2 sets the number and energy of the valence electrons that participate in bonding. Structure and oxidation state then determine the properties of its materials and compounds.

Chemical forms

Compounds, ions and materials

Typical compounds include oxides, halides and hydrides. The lighter members can build strong covalent networks or chains, while the heavier elements show increasing metallic bonding and greater importance of the +2 oxidation state.

Physical behaviour

State and phase changes

The reference phase at room temperature is solid. The listed density is 11.34 g/cm³. The melting point is 600.6 K (327.5 °C). The boiling point is 2 022 K (1 749 °C). Pressure, purity and crystal structure can shift measured physical properties.

Occurrence and applications

Where lead is found and used

In practice, lead is encountered in batteries, radiation shielding and construction.

In practice

Examples of real uses

Batteries

Lead is used in selected battery chemistries, electrode materials or electrolytes. The exact role depends on the compound and cell design.

Radiation shielding

Dense lead-containing materials or compounds help attenuate ionising radiation in controlled applications.

Construction

Lead is used in structural materials, coatings, cement chemistry or alloys chosen for mechanical durability.

Periodic position

What its neighbours tell us

Lead is in period 6 and group 14. In the neighbourhood shown here, it lies between thallium and bismuth in the same period; tin is above it and flerovium below it in the same group. These positions make it possible to compare atomic size, ionisation energy and bonding behaviour with nearby elements.

Reference data

Physical and atomic properties

Classificationpost-transition metal

Phase at room temperatureSolid

Electron shells2 · 8 · 18 · 32 · 18 · 4

Density11.34 g/cm³

Melting point600.6 K (327.5 °C)

Boiling point2 022 K (1 749 °C)

Pauling electronegativity1.87

First ionisation energy715.6 kJ/mol

Electron affinity34.42 kJ/mol

Values describe the element or neutral atom where applicable. Physical data can depend on allotrope, pressure and measurement conditions.

History

Discovery and identification

Early use of lead is associated with the Middle East. That is not a single modern discovery event: early use, chemical identification and the later atomic-number definition belong to different stages.

Isotopes and atomic weight

How isotope composition changes the numbers

The standard atomic weight is given as the interval [206.14, 207.94]. Natural samples can differ slightly in isotope proportions, so a single universal decimal value would hide real variation between materials.

Lead has at least one stable isotope. Different isotopes have the same number of protons and therefore the same element identity, but different neutron numbers and atomic masses.

Safety

Handling and exposure

Lead is toxic, especially to the developing nervous system. Exposure from dust, paint, contaminated materials and industrial work must be controlled.